What Is The History Of Vietnamese Migration - 960 Words

SGP Draft 1 What is the history of Vietnamese migration? The migration of Vietnamese to Australia is relatively recent and has occurred in the last 40 years. The migration can be categorized into three periods: 1. Pre-1975 2. Refugee resettlement during 1975-1985 3. Family reunion Before 1975, not many Vietnamese migrated to Australia. In 1958, due to the Colombo Plan, Vietnamese students started to arrive in Australia to study at universities. However, after finishing their courses, most of the students would return to Vietnam. The Vietnam War began in 1955, resulting in Australia committing combat troops to Vietnam to support the US Government. In 1975, the Australian Government completely withdraw from the Vietnam War. When the soldiers returned home, some had married Vietnamese and brought them back with them. ‘Operation Baby lift’ details the evacuation of Vietnamese orphans from Saigon to Bangkok, some of which were adopted by Australian families. Therefore, in 1975 there were only around 1000 Vietnam-born people in Australia. Why did the Vietnamese migrate to Australia? As a result of the Vietnam War, many Vietnamese sought refugee and fled their country in fear of persecution. Vietnamese refugees first fled to neighbouring refugee camps in southeast Asia. Later, wealthier countries such as Australia, France, Canada and Untied States accepted many of refugees into their country. Within the refugee resettlement stage, it could be broken down into fourShow MoreRelatedUnited States s Speech On Immigration System1091 Words   |  5 PagesFinal Paper Introduction Migration has been process for the whole history of human being. People roamed to seek for available livestock, new land for settlement and place for hunting and fishery. And these process has been processed until today around the world, despite for more reasons and subjects. For more than 200 years, our tradition of welcoming immigrants from around the world has given us a tremendous advantage over other nations.(Lindsey, 2014) Obama stated to begin his speech about immigrationRead MoreVietnamese Immigration Essay795 Words   |  4 Pagesï » ¿6/25/12 Paper One Vietnamese Immigration Supposedly, the history of Vietnamese immigration to the United States is â€Å"relatively recent.† (Povell) Prior to 1975, most Vietnamese residing in the US were wives and children to American servicemen in Vietnam. In 1975, the ‘Fall of the Saigon’ marked the end of the Vietnam War, which prompted the first of two main waves of Vietnamese emigration towards the US. The first wave included Vietnamese who had helped the US in the war and â€Å"feared reprisalsRead MoreLanguage Fits Over Experience Like A Straight Jacket1176 Words   |  5 Pagesexpress our thoughts and emotions in their truest forms. But, who would we be without language? Lacking the ability to communicate would take away from our understanding of the world and people around us. This understanding of our place in society, is what forms our identity, because it sets us apart from others. How could we know good, if there was no such thing as bad? The meaning of the word â€Å"good,† would be rendered useless without the existence of â€Å"bad.† Similarly, our identity depends on not onlyRead MoreAged Population in Vietnam1035 Words   |  4 Pages *What is a demographic? â€Å"A demographic is the study of human populations in terms of size, density, location, age, gender, race, occupation, and other statistics. The demographic environment is of major interest to marketers because it involves people, and people make up markets† (Course Book – Principle of marketing) ïÆ' ° Demographic is a group of consumers that has a mutual collection of market-relevant attributes. It can be any number of people that share the same time frame. 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For migrants from diasporic communities, assimilating to the Western identity while trying to maintain the cultural heritage is not an easy task, especially during the 20th century, where racial discrimination played a large role in impeding multiculturalism. I believ e my childhood experiences isRead MoreShikhar Giri. Professor Sinclair. History-1302. 07 January,1580 Words   |  7 PagesShikhar Giri Professor Sinclair History-1302 07 January, 2017 Final Assignment 1. How and why did FDR and the New Deal fundamentally transform America? In your answer, consider the changes related to business, farmers, laborers, minorities, and politics. What were the limits of the New Deal? What was its legacy? The New Deal was a movement of undertakings, including, most noticeably, Government managed savings, that were built up in the Unified States in the region of 1933 and 1938, and a coupleRead MoreGlobalization Is The Key Of Success For All Countries1183 Words   |  5 Pagestoward the information, financial, economics, and trade as well as communication integration†. It is a crucial process, where people do business on an international scale. 2.2History The industrial revolution is the most important period in the history of globalization because there is a significant increase in quality and quantity of product. After this, business relation was increased due to exchange of goods. So that, pre globalization was started after the First World War. Now, it opens theRead MoreEssay on Vietnamese Americans3140 Words   |  13 Pagespaper will discuss Vietnamese Americans and their journey to America. I will talk about how these incredible and resilient people fought to succeed it a world that seemed to hold the odds against them. The culture, beliefs, and challenges of Vietnamese people are a precise paradigm of their strength and perseverance. Unfortunately, Vietnamese Americans make up only a small percent of the total American Population today. There are many stereotypes associated with the Vietnamese, but the truth isRead MoreEthics, Law And The History Of The Global Finance Capital1080 Words   |  5 PagesAnna C Reiff Professor McBride Senior Seminar: Ethics, Law and the History of the Global Finance Capital December 14, 2016 Finance and Funding in United States Refugee Resettlement: A System Evaluation The United States resettles thousands of refugees every year from all over the globe. Once a refugee goes through an application process and is approved to be resettled in the United States, the official process of resettlement can begin. 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I Was A Little Nervous - 2057 Words

At the beginning of the semester, I can honestly say I had no idea what to expect with this class. All I knew was that I had to take one of the possible three choices to go towards my Education English Minor. For quite a few years now I have begun to read more than I ever had in my life. Growing up as a child I never wanted to read, unless it was with my grandmother, and even then, I had to be in a specific mood. Still, even though I have been reading, I can promise you they are not any highly-prized novels; most of them are all romance novels. Because of these experiences, and after entering the classroom and finding out what novels we would be reading, I became a little nervous. My reader experiences before this class had been very†¦show more content†¦I have learned to see the importance in breaking a text apart to find the deeper meaning, and how there almost always is one if you’re willing to search for it. In connection with what I have said, I have also enjoyed making connections with the text; connections to myself and connections to the world. Even if I did not particularly enjoy the text we were reading, my appreciation for it was still there. In the past, if I hated a book that was pretty much it and I wouldn’t give it a second thought. Now, however, things have changed. For example, I did not particularly enjoy reading the Mary Rowlandson text. Even though I didn’t enjoy reading the text, particularly, I did enjoy listening to and taking part in, the conversations in the class that came out of the text. I can also appreciate the possibilities of why she wrote it, and what the implications have been because it was written. If I had to choose one thing in particular that I enjoyed the least, I know you’re going to hate me for this, but it was probably the poetry. I know you have said that it is a clichà © to say, â€Å"I have never really understood poetry,† but for me, I still feel that is relevant. I have never really been exposed to poetry, to be honest. Throughout elementary, the only time I was ever really exposed was during speech competitions my small private school put on in which we had the option to try and memorize. In upper levels ofShow MoreRelatedI Was A Little Nervous1155 Words   |  5 Pageswords): I was a little nervous about not only trying to perform the Stunning Spell, but also having this spell cast upon me, due to the fact that it renders it’s victim unconscious. I also did not expect the effect to be instantaneous. Once my partner was ready and stood surrounded by cushions, I raised my wand and brought it back down in a quick slashing motion, â€Å"Stupefy!†. As a flash of blue light left my wand towards my partner, she immediately fell backwards onto the cushions. I found it quiteRead MoreLife in Navy Boot Camp Essay813 Words   |  4 PagesIt was a warm summer evening as I packed for Navy Boot Camp. I carefully went down the list of things I could take and ensured I didn’t have anything else. A little nervous I went to talk to my parents about my move to becoming my own man. I looked at their faces and could tell that although they were proud they were a little nervous about their only son leaving home for the first time. My mom tried to smile but she was proud yet nervous because I had always been her little guy so she was havingRead MoreThe Tell Tale Heart And The Yellow Wallpaper983 Words   |  4 Pagesis that he is not mad, only nervous. He claims that once the though t of the eye entered his brain it was all he could think about. The man did not hate the old man, but there was something about the eye that made his skin crawl. â€Å"For his gold I had no desire. I think it was his eye! Yes, it was this! One of his eyes resembled that of a vulture-a pale blue eye, with film over it,† (37). He believed the eye was disgusting and the only way to permanently get rid of it was to take the old man’s life.Read More Janes Psychological Problems in Charlotte Gilman’s The Yellow Wallpaper1322 Words   |  6 PagesJane suffers from symptoms such as story making and daydreaming. Jane has a nervous weakness throughout the story. Jane is a victim of a nervous disorder of the brain called hysteria. She is aware that she suffers from a series of mental and physical disturbances. She says that she has a temporary nervous depression: -- a slight hysterical tendency- what is one to do?(2). According to Freud hysteria is a nervous disorder that causes violent fits of laughter, crying, and imagination. ItRead MoreThe Importance Of Being A Radio DJ814 Words   |  4 Pagesimmediately I was hooked. I decided to write my name and email down on the lined paper that had the universitys radio station, WHRW, printed at the top in big bold letters. I always wanted to be a radio DJ, but there was never really the opportunity for me to do so until I attended college. Little did I know how difficult it was going to be to finally get my own show on the air. I had always been nervous when it came to public speaking. The reason why I wanted to have my own radio show was to shareRead MorePersonal Narrative : The First Show1313 Words   |  6 Pagespreparation. It was the day of my very first dance recital! I had practiced my routine in dance class and at home constantly with the watchful eye of my mother helping me. My costume was ready and so was I. I woke up to my Mother gently waking me up reminding me that today was a very important day. I then jumped up out of bed remembering that today was my very first dance recital. â€Å"Yay, it’s finally here!† I screamed, jumping up and down on my bed. My little brother was already awake so I didn’t haveRead MoreThe Yellow Wallpaper, By Charlotte Perkins Gilman951 Words   |  4 PagesNeurasthenia was first described in 1869 as a disease characterized by extreme anxiety, depression, and fatigue. But in the 18th and 19th century, a temporary nervous depression, which is what the narrator in â€Å"The Yellow Paper† is diagnosed with, was the illness most common among women due to their perceived fragility and weak emotions. This nervous disease was associated with numerous symptoms, such as pale urine, a visible swelling of the stomach, headaches, fainting, palpitations of the heartRead MoreAnalysis Of The Movie I Didn t Sleep 1663 Words   |  7 Pagesfrom the town square. She contemplated telling her mom and Luke about Jess’ reemergence, but she didn t know how long he was staying, or if he was staying at all, so she decided not to say anything. Jess had been right, the air was crisp tonight and she should ve brought a blanket for her daughter, and a jacket for herself. But she wouldn t let herself think that Jess was right, what does he know about being a parent, not that she knew every trick in the book either. Rory got back to the houseRead MoreFamilial Conflict in the Short Stories The Yellow Wallpaper and Responsibility836 Words   |  4 Pagesthe narrator is the protagonist she is a woman that is apparently suffering from nervous depression. In the short story responsibility, the son James is the protagonist, there are many differences between him and his mother they share a usual relationship where the child rebels against the parents’ wishes. 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What Was the Involvement of Ordianry Germans in the Holocaust Essay Sample free essay sample

With specific mentions to at least three testimonies. assess the function of ordinary Germans in the Holocaust. The ordinary Germans had an equivocal and to a great extent debated function in the Holocaust during WW2. Much research has been undertaken by historiographers such as Daniel Goldhagen and Robert Galletely into the function the bulk of ordinary Germans played in the Holocaust. The extent to which the bulk understood and freely supported the Nazis in their persecution of the Jews is controversial. This bulk. nevertheless. did non hold such a important impact in the holocaust as the minority groups. which either supported and helped the National Socialists and as such were true protagonists of their cause. or were prepared to help the Jews in hedging persecution. such as members of the Catholic and Protestant Churches. There were besides ordinary Germans who were employed to help the Nazis in their conquering as portion of their every twenty-four hours occupation. such as Hefer. a German truck driver. Historians do non hold wholly on the engagement of the bulk of ordinary Germans during the Holocaust. Daniel Goldhagen argues in his book â€Å"Hitler’s Willing Executioners† . that the bulk of the German population had full cognition of the Nazis secret plan against the Judaic people and were willing to take part. However. others such as Gellately disagree that the German public were strictly Anti-semitic. alternatively it is believed they were subjected to a cagey propaganda machine. However. the inquiry remains as to why they didn’t stand up en mass to the Nazi Regime. Hitler’s propaganda curate Joseph Goebbles used his best attempts to seek and ‘Sugar Coat’ the Holocaust and smartly warrant the intervention Jews were being capable to. however. Germans shortly found out what was being done to the Jews. Hefer. a German Truck Driver. witnessed the Jews being lined up and shooting by Ukrainian protagonists of the Nazis. he states ‘As sho rtly as a Jew lay down. a Schutzpolizist came along with a submachine gun and shooting him in the dorsum of the caput. The Jews who descended into the ravine were so frightened by this awful scene that they wholly lost their will’ . Events such as these no uncertainty. easy began go arounding through the German populace. It would look there are two chief grounds why the bulk of the German populace did non actively oppose the Holocaust. they were either afraid of the Nazis or they supported the political orientation in rule. Fear of the Nazis was strong throughout the ordinary German populace ; many believing that there were Nazi undercover agents in every facet of their society. Furthermore. one time Hitler came to power in 1933 he created the Nazi Storm Troopers. called the SA. these work forces were used to police the streets and to cover with anybody that opposed the Nazi Regime. These work forces instilled fright into the public and forced them into silence when it came to doubtful facets of the Nazi regulation. These storm cavalrymans carried on their work good into the clip of the Holocaust. therefore forestalling many Germans from standing up to the Nazis. for fright of their lives and the lives of their households. Gellately argues that the ambiance of panic and fright was enhanced by ‘denunciations’ from ordinary Germans. in which they would describe any leery ‘anti-Nazi’ activity to the local Nazi authorization. On the other manus. Daniel Goldhagen argues that many ordinary Germans supported the anti-semitic positions of the Nazis and would hold merrily become involved in the holocaust if asked to. therefore they were actively in support of what Hitler was making. The Holocaust did. nevertheless. have many political and military challengers. Some besides came from the German population. These people were a minority. and they did non hold the full support of their friends and neighbors behind them. They did non believe in the purification of the German race and did non portion the Anti-semitic positions of the Nazis. The few that opposed the Nazis included members of the Catholic and Protestant Churches. certain persons and other slackly organized groups. an illustration these people is Hans and Sophie Scholl. This brother and sister combination was portion of a non-violent opposition group called the White Rose. which aimed at distributing consciousness of Nazi force and seeking to halt it. Finally they were found by the Nazis. trialled and executed in 1943. foregrounding the utmost danger of this sort of opposition. As shown in the transcripts and testimonies. punishments for rebelliousness were terrible. It reads ‘That the accused have in clip of war by agencies of cusps called for the sabotage of the war attempt and armaments and for the overthrow of the National Socialist manner of life of our people’ . Propaganda was besides really effectual here. ‘to the terminal that the German people would be deprived of the National Socialist manner of life and therefore besides of their authorities. ’ . These ordinary Germans played a function in seeking to halt the Holocaust and paid the ultimate monetary value. Along side the minority of ordinary Germans who actively opposed the Holocaust. were the Germans who supported what the Nazis stood for and the actions that they were taking against the Jews. These ordinary Germans were people who had antecedently voted for Hitler in the 1933 or 1938 elections that occurred before the holocaust. or people who were swayed by the Nazis propaganda strategy that they had taking up to. and during WW2. Daniel Goldhagen argues in his book ‘Hitler’s Willing Executioners’ that ordinary Germans. if given a opportunity to kill a Jew. would hold done it. This statement is to a great extent debated and many Historians agree that merely a minority of Germans would hold agreed to kill the Jews and of these the most would non hold dared carried out their promise. This minority did. nevertheless. assist the Nazis in many ways. chiefly boycotting Judaic concern and driving them out of German towns and from their places. An illustration of this was the Kristallnacht. the devastation of Judaic temples by the Nazis and its protagonists. A German school male child recalls the events of the Kirstallnacht. ‘Walking past the temple when a group of work forces led by Paul Wolff. a local carpenter†¦ broke into a tally and stormed the entryway of the building†¦ pieces of furniture came winging through doors and windows’ . This history demonstrates how willing some Germans were. to help the Nazis in accomplishing their ends. Ordinary Germans played a diverse and complicated function in the Holocaust. There is no uncertainty their behavior can be mostly categorised by obeisance to Nazi waies one time the war was in full swing. nevertheless. little but determined opposition was active on many degrees albeit mostly disorganised due to intense examination and fright. We can separate three chief groups ; the first of these groups being the bulk of Germans who didn’t go actively involved in the holocaust even with the cognition of the events that were taking topographic point. inactive entry and conformity. The 2nd were the ordinary Germans who assisted the Jews in malice of Nazis menaces. The last group were the Germans who openly and actively supported the Nazi political orientation and were prepared to help them in their persecution of the Judaic people. It can be argued that the ordinary Germans of WW2 were a population with assorted positions and positions mostly shaped by propaganda and fright. th is finally shaped their engagement in the Holocaust. Bibliography/References Goldhagen. D 1997. Hitler’s Willing Executioners. Abacus. London Hefer 2004. World Holocaust Forum. viewed 18 February 2013 lt ; hypertext transfer protocol: //www. worldholocaustforum. org/eng/persons/5/ gt ; . United States Holocaust Memorial Museum 2010. The Nazi Terror Begins. viewed 16 February 2013 lt ; hypertext transfer protocol: //www. ushmm. org/outreach/en/article. php? ModuleId=10007673 gt ; . Inge Scholl. The White Rose: Munich. 1942-1943 ( Middletown. Conn. : Wesleyan University Press. 1983 ) . pp. 114-118 Alfons Heck. The Burden of Hitler’s Legacy. ( Frederick 1988 ) pp. 61-62 Judaic Virtual Library 2003. The Holocaust: An Introductory History. Viewed 16 February 2013 lt ; hypertext transfer protocol: //www. jewishvirtuallibrary. org/jsource/Holocaust/history. hypertext markup language gt ; . Victor Klemperer. Ich will Zeugnis ablegen Bi zum letzen. Tagebucher 1933-1941. Berlin: Aufbau-Verlag. 1995. pp. 16-17 Gallately. R 1997. Backing Der fuhrer: Consent and Coersion in Nazi Germany. Oxford University Press. London Yale University Library 2012. Holocaust Survivor Testimonies. Viewed 16 February 2013 lt ; hypertext transfer protocol: //www. library. Yale University. edu/testimonies/ gt ; . Yad Vashem 2013. Testimonies Collection. Viewed 17 February 2013. lt ;hypertext transfer protocol: //www. yadvashem. org/yv/en/about/visual_center/usc. asp gt ; . Bernstein. M 1996. Be the Slaughter of the Jews embraced by the Germans. NY Times. March 27 1996 PBS 1996. Interview With Daniel Goldhagen. viewed 15 February 2013 lt ; hypertext transfer protocol: //www. phosphate buffer solution. org/newshour/gergen/goldhagen. hypertext markup language gt ; . Ezzard. J 2001. Germans Knew of Holocaust horror about decease cantonments. The Guardian. 17 February. viewed 18 February 2013 lt ; hypertext transfer protocol: //www. defender. co. uk/uk/2001/feb/17/johnezard gt ; . [ 1 ] . Goldhagen. D 1997. Hitler’s Willing Executioners. Abacus. London Thesis [ 2 ] . Hefer 2004. World Holocaust Forum. viewed 18 February 2013. [ 3 ] . United States Holocaust Memorial Museum 2010. The Nazi Terror Begins. viewed 16 February 2013. [ 4 ] . Goldhagen. D 1997. Hitler’s Willing Executioners. Abacus. London Thesis [ 5 ] . Inge Scholl. The White Rose: Munich. 1942-1943 ( Middletown. Conn. : Wesleyan University Press. 1983 ) . pp. 114-118 [ 6 ] . Inge Scholl. The White Rose: Munich. 1942-1943 ( Middletown. Conn. : Wesleyan University Press. 1983 ) . pp. 114-118 [ 7 ] . Goldhagen. D 1997. Hitler’s Willing Executioners. Abacus. London Thesis [ 8 ] . Alfons Heck. The Burden of Hitler’s Legacy. ( Frederick 1988 ) pp. 61-62

Nigerias Public Service Reform Process Human Resource Issues Essay Example

Nigerias Public Service Reform Process: Human Resource Issues Essay That Nigeria is going through a phase of rapid transition is beyond doubt. Variability in any case, is a constant feature of human societies. There was a time not too far in the past when the Nigerian economy was based on agriculture. Then for a few fleeting years, petroleum resources transformed the outward appearance of the economy. In recent years, oil wealth has proved to be so fickle and elusive a partner in development that frantic efforts have been, and are being, made to search for alternative sources of wealth. Looking at the vicissitudes in the life of a nation, as we have just done in the case of Nigeria, it is tempting then to suggest that the single determinant of a nation’s growth is the quantum of resources it possesses. To put it in another language, a nation waxes or wanes depending on its natural resource endowment. If this hypothesis is not totally false, it is also not exactly true. The experience of the last forty or so years has demonstrated that one factor that has proved decisive in Africa’s development effort is the caliber of the available human resource. It is this factor, rather than any other, that has pushed the continent farther on the path of dependence, recession and economic decay. We will write a custom essay sample on Nigerias Public Service Reform Process: Human Resource Issues specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Nigerias Public Service Reform Process: Human Resource Issues specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Nigerias Public Service Reform Process: Human Resource Issues specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer It is the only energy source that has the potential of igniting the engine of recovery and growth. If we are keen on a serious debate, we may even advance the proposition that of all the variables crucial to an understanding of the development process, the human resource stands out as an independent variable. It is the variable that operates on, and transforms, other variables to produce a given development scenario. If the human resource is presumed to be so important, what then is its true nature, and in what ways can we support its development and growth? As argued in this paper, human resource is more than the complements of staff required to implement a specific policy or programme. It is even more than the â€Å"training† and â€Å"development† of manpower. We are getting close to the true character of human resource when, in addition to the preceding components, we look at the morale and motivation of the work force, the tactics and strategies adopted in deploying the workforce on agreed assignments, as well as the internal (management) and the external (socio-cultural) influences operating on the behaviour of employees. Much as one would like to be â€Å"practical† and down-to-earth, the preceding attempt to define the scope of human resource management raises a serious but unavoidable conceptual problem. We began with the a priori assumption that the human resource is strategic. We even went to argue that the sub-optimal behaviour of this strategic resource is the fortes et origo of Africa’s troubles. It is 3 on the basis of its importance that we classified it as an independent variable. But then, the definition of the variable leads us to believe that its behaviour is also subject to the behaviour of other variables – notably, the methods and policies affecting the recruitment, training, motivation, deployment and utilization of personnel. Thus, within the twinkle of an eye, an independent variable has become very much dependent. This raises the question, how come? The failure to solve the conceptual puzzle in human resource management is, in fact, the bane of previous efforts at devising practical and reliable strategies aimed at deriving optimum benefits from the allocation of this vital resource. To be specific, our failure to distinguish the point in time when human resource is considered strategic enough to â€Å"stand by itself† from that when it is so devalued that it becomes a â€Å"captive† of other variables (administrative, political, cultural, etc. ) explains the inconsistency and the double-talk on the importance of human resources in national development efforts. If we are able to establish the strategic nature of the human resource and, at the same time, identify the factors that militate against its optimum allocation, what policy measures can we propose to rectify any perceived anomalies? In specific terms, what actions can we urge employing authorities to take to derive maximum benefits from the monies and efforts which they invest on recruitment, training and manpower development as well as on the â€Å"sanitization† of the management environment against possible outbreaks of productivity-resisting diseases (notably, corrupt practices, mismanagement of diversity, sagging morale, bad time-keeping, willful elongation of procedures, and brain-drain). In proposing a radical review of human resource development and utilization policy in Nigeria, this paper begins by discussing the role of human resources in the development process. It then proceeds to examine factors within the formal organization, and in the external environment, which determine the effective allocation of this vital resource. The third part of the paper focuses on short- and medium-term policy measures, while the fourth outlines a long-term plan aimed at countering the negative effects of he external environment. 2. Human Resources and National Development The development of any nation depends to a very large extent on the caliber, organization and motivation of its human resources. In the specific case of Nigeria where diversity exerts tremendous influence on politics and administration, the capacity to increase the benefits and reduce the costs of this diversity constitutes a human resource management challenge of epic proportion. 4 During the colonial period, Nigeria’s economy was based on primary production – more specifically, on the production of primary commodities and raw materials for the export market. Although the population was relatively small, the country’s contribution to world trade in specific commodities was impressive. For example, in 1938, Nigeria’s population was less than 30 million, and even up to 1955 the figure could not have been higher than 35 million. Yet, within this period, 1938-55, when there were no more than 35 million Nigerians, the country recorded constant increases in the production of palm kernel, palm-oil and groundnuts, and was a major force to reckon with in the international exchange of the commodities. Tables 1, 2 and 3 depict Nigeria’s share of the world trade in palm kernels, palm-oil, and groundnuts, between 1938 and 1955. Table 1: NIGERIA’S PALM-KERNELS EXPORT AS % OF WORLD TOTAL, 1938 – 1955 1938 Tons exported (‘000) Value (? illion) % of total world export of palm-kernel 312. 0 2. 2 46. 0 1947 316. 0 6. 2 58. 0 1949 397. 0 12. 3 52. 0 1955 433. 0 19. 2 56. 0 Source: K. M. Buchanan and J. C. Pugh, Land and People in Nigeria, Hodder and Stoughton, London, 1955 Table 2: NIGERIA’S PALM-OIL EXPORT AS % OF WORLD TOTAL, 1938-1955 1938 Tons exported (‘000) Value (? million) % of total world trade in palm-oil Source: Buchanan and Pugh 110. 0 1. 0 22. 0 1947 121. 0 3. 2 43. 0 1949 159. 0 7. 2 34. 0 1955 182. 0 13. 2 33. 0 5 Table 3: NIGERIA’S GROUNDNUT EXPORTS AS % OF WORLD TOTAL, 1938-1955 1938 Tons exported (‘000) 180. 0 Value (? million) 1. % of total world trade in groundnuts 9. 0 Source: Buchanan and Pugh 1947 250. 0 6. 3 38. 0 1949 355. 0 12. 0 40. 0 1955 528. 0 23. 1 In explaining the vast contributions of a thinly populated Nigeria to world trade in primary commodities, we cannot but acknowledge nature’s bounty in the form of fertile soil, favourable weather and constantly good harvests. But over and above these natural advantages, the colonial administrators consciously applied the then rare skill of managing people and ensuring that they (the mass of the people) produced the goods and services required for the sustenance of the colonial economy. Indeed, the palm trees could have yielded the kernels without being cultivated, but the seeds and the oil would have gone to waste if plans had not been made to collect them for further processing. Groundnut cakes and oil would have gone to waste if plans had not been made to collect them for further processing. Groundnut cakes would not materialize unless the seeds were planted, the farms properly tended, and the crops harvested at the right time and transported to the collection depots or oil mills. In realization of the Biblical warning that after his transgression in Heaven, Adam would have to toil and sweat before he could have his daily bread, the colonial authorities devised an ingenious plan of extracting as much work as possible from the colonized people. First, they instituted the system of labour contract – a system which no less a personality than Lugard regarded as more efficient than slavery. Secondly, the colonial power introduced the system of direct taxation, and insisted that the tax must be paid in a recognized and legally sanctioned currency. Since the African could not resort to trade by barter in discharging his tax obligations, he now had two options – to look for wage labour (e. g. in the coal mines or in construction projects) or to produce more cash crops (cotton, cocoa, groundnuts, hides and skins). Thirdly, to encourage increased agricultural production and facilitate the movement of commodities, the colonial regime (particularly between 1906 and 1936) gave priority to the development of infrastructural facilities such as roads, railway, ports and harbours, and internal communication services. In case the facilities proved inadequate as an incentive to production, the colonial administration encouraged the importation of European 6 manufactured goods that had to be paid for with income generated from formal or informal employment. It was in fact this craving for prestigious European goods (ranging from the Raleigh bicycle to the Ford Motor Car) which served as the most powerful inducement to work. As we are likely to discover later, it was this same craving for imported manufactured items which proved detrimental to the development of self-reliance, and for that reason, of indigenous technical knowhow. In any case, the strategy adopted by the colonial regime did achieve its basic objective – i. e. the deployment of local human resources in such a way that primary commodities and essential raw materials were produced as and when required. The same strategy made possible the construction of infrastructural facilities and the extraction and exploitation of mineral resources such as coal and tin ore. At the very least, therefore, the colonial administration’s deployment of human resources did produce operatives, if not managers. After the attainment of independence, and, particularly, towards the latter part of the 1960s, crude oil steadily emerged as a vital economic asset. Although the civil war (1967-70) prevented a full-scale exploitation of Nigeria’s petroleum resources, the cessation of hostilities in 1970 witnessed a sharp increase in oil revenue. This had the effect of transforming the shape and size of the economy. In contrast to the 1960s when the growth rate seldom exceeded 4 per cent per annum, the period 1970 to 1977 saw the economy grow at the rate of between 9. and 30. 6 per cent. While the external appearance of the economy conveyed an impression of growth, decay was gradually creeping in. in fact, a number of danger signals could be detected even at the height of the oil boom. First, what passed for growth was nothing more than the beguiling influence of what was essentially a wasting asset. Whereas oil exports continued to rise in volume and value, traditional exports – especi ally primary commodity exports either stagnated or declined. In other words, the economy â€Å"grew† in the 1970s not because labour and other factor inputs were more productively deployed than before, but because nature was, in a manner of speaking, bestowing increasing resources on Nigeria. If we are looking for further proof of this statement, we may wish to compare the rate of population growth with per caput agricultural production. In the 1970s, the population grew at the rate of over 3 per cent per annum, while per capital agricultural production was lower than 2 per cent. Also, while the total population in the 70s approached 75 million, (more than twice what it was in 1955) Nigeria had by then lost the commanding lead which it possessed in the 1950s in the production and export of certain primary commodities. In a nutshell, 7 the more people there were, the less productive Nigeria’s food and agriculture sector tended to become. If that is curious, then we need to look at another concurrent â€Å"development† in the 1970s – that is, the second danger signal which ought to have been promptly heeded. While the country earned an increasing amount of revenue from petroleum exports, the balance on the current account was apt to tilt towards the negative rather than the positive side. In 1970/71, current account deficit amounted to N500 million; in 1971/72, N229 million; in 1972/73, N315 million; and in 1976/77, N219. 9 million. Only in 1975/76 was a surplus of N172. 6 million recorded. The deficits are by themselves not disastrous for the economy – especially, if the economy had an in-built mechanism for transforming the goods financed under the deficits into productive assets. In the case of Nigeria, the deficits simply reflected an uncontrollable propensity to import capital goods, raw materials, and consumer items, without a clear programme for the development of indigenous capacity in the areas. We need to make necessary allowance for the fact that the early 1970s was a period when Nigeria was faced with a huge challenge in the areas of national reconciliation, reconstruction, and rehabilitation. Government had no choice but to earmark large sums for these urgent tasks. We must also recall that the Government did make a serious attempt to promote self-reliance. As a matter of fact, a sizeable proportion of the oil revenue went into financing a comprehensive indigenous enterprises promotion (otherwise known as the â€Å"indigenisation†) policy. The disappointing response of the new (indigenous)entrepreneurs was the problem. Instead of accepting the challenge by initiating new managerial and technical processes, some of the new â€Å"owners† of enterprises were either content to operate as fronts for aliens or continued to rely on the industrialized economies for leadership in management and technology. Even industrial raw materials had to be imported with the result that if foreign xchange became scarce the factories had to close down or to operate at reduced capacity. The third danger signal noticeable in the 1970s was the emerging culture of replacement and the abandonment of the repair and maintenance culture. While the replacement of unserviceable equipment or mechanically faulty motor vehicles saves the owner a lot of head ache, it is wasteful in terms of the additional financial outlays involved, and more especially, in terms of the loss of the training opportunity which repairs and maintenance would have offered. In effect, the replacement culture which evolved with the oil boom of the 1970s aggravated Nigeria’s technological dependence situation and did an incalculable harm to the development and utilization of the nation’s stock of human resources. 8 There are reasons to believe that attitudes are changing. After the oil shock of 1982 and the series of belt-tightening measures which accompanied it, it became clear that even metal scraps and â€Å"carcasses† of motor vehicles could be put to good use. At any rate, with the shortage of foreign exchange, it is becoming increasingly difficult to import new machinery and equipment or obtain spare parts for existing ones. Necessity, they say, is the mother of invention. In Nigeria, necessity has led mechanical workshops to experiment with the idea of â€Å"cannibalising† one equipment to â€Å"save† another. However, the earlier practice of waiting for, or merely reacting to, external leadership in science and technology has cost Nigeria very dearly. It resulted in financial resource leakage, and aborted whatever plans there might have been to promote indigenous technological development. It was like losing the chance of a life time. I must stress that by focusing on what might have been, I do not wish to create the impression that Nigeria’s current socio-economic crisis arose out of the fact that within the period of oil boom, the Nigerians stopped working. If anything, the rush to make a quick Naira led many a Nigerian to sleep less and toil more. However, and from the point of view of optimum allocation of effort, we may argue that a disproportionate amount of time was spent on pursuits whose impact on the long-term health of the economy was questionable. And practically every Nigerian has a share of the blame. The political leaders did not map out a clear-cut policy on self-reliance and on indigenous technological development. The senior managers, administrators and professional personnel were either too impotent to influence policy in the direction of self-reliance, or they saw no need to tamper with what was essentially a neo-colonial (and dependent) socio-economic arrangement. Their subordinates in the executive and technical cadres could not be expected to think differently. Theirs, in any case, was to implement laid down policy, avoid â€Å"mistakes†, and generally steer clear of trouble. The clerical and operational staff might be interested in change, but that change must have direct and immediate impact on their limited earnings. As all the classes have lately discovered, the wrong channeling of energies has reversed the gains of yester-years, and substituted economic decline for economic growth. The development strategy which evolved over the years, and the implementation of the strategy, has placed the economy in a situation of dependence. In such a situation, the human resource is merely a follower rather than an initiator of technology. The consequence is obvious. The leaders decide the fate of the followers. For instance, if factories in the industrialized economies turn back 9 Nigeria’s cotton, cocoa and other commodities, the only option available to Nigeria (in the absence of alternative uses) is to step down the production of the commodities. In fact, during the second world war when the British diverted resources to the war effort, cocoa farmers (now knowing what to do with the harvest on their hands) set their plantations on fire! No doubt, therefore, human resources play a crucial role in national development. Yet, as the next section shows, policies governing the development and utilization of the resources might fail to grapple with the major problems in human resource management. 3. Problems in Human Resource Development and Utilization: a Review of Policies and Practices A umber of factors tend to influence the optimum allocation of human resources. Among them are the policies relating to recruitment, training, employment conditions, and the deployment of personnel. Equally important are the prevailing management environment, socio-economic conditions, and the traditional work culture. Let us take this one by one. Recruitment Policies and Practices The contribution of the human resource is likely to be determined largely by the caliber of people recruited into an organization. In most cases, employers focus on the qualifications and experience of candidates being considered for vacant positions. While this is prima facie useful, it does not necessarily follow that the credentials make the employee. Even when we discount the possibility of forgeries and certificate racketeering, academic training by itself might not adequately prepare a person for a job. The same thing applies in the case of experience which might neither be â€Å"cognate† nor â€Å"relevant†. In fact, instead of focusing mainly on educational qualifications and experience, recruiting bodies would need to go further and probe deep into the aptitudes, attitudes, personal character of candidates for certain jobs. Certainly, jobs in the security and law enforcement agencies, financial institutions, customs, immigration and the postal service would, in view of the public attention they have attracted, benefit from a professional approach to staff selection. The need for federal character in the recruitment of public personnel has generated a lot of controversy in recent years. There is nothing wrong with the principle. It is only the application that we have to watch. Federal character, as I once argued, mean looking far and wide for the best and the most competent. 10 However, in practice, the principle may be subverted, especially if it is interpreted as a crude form of ethnic balancing. In a diverse society like Nigeria, the public service cannot evade the issue of representation. When an agency is dominated by individuals from one ethnic group, the un-represented groups are likely to cry foul, and for good reasons too. It is only when the diversity of a nation is properly reflected (or mainstreamed) in decision-making structures that the fairness of decisions could be constantly tested. It goes without saying that the issue of diversity does not end with recruitment. It extends to the day-to-day management of inter-personal and inter-group relations in public agencies. It is therefore imperative that senior managers be exposed to the appropriate sensit ivity training so that the networks of relations would be properly and adequately managed. Training and Manpower Development Closely related to the problem of recruitment is, therefore, that of training and manpower development. Presumably, those to be recruited would first have to be trained. It was in realization of the importance of pre-entry training that priority was attached to the establishment of primary, secondary, vocational, and technical schools, and universities. In 1970, there were 3,515,820 primary, 310,054 secondary, vocational, and technical schools in Nigeria. By 1978, the number had increased to 11,410,360; 1,223,200 and 43,088 respectively. And while there were only 5 universities in 1962, Nigeria has no less than 21 today. Therefore, at least, in terms of the basic, pre-entry training, candidates for different classes of jobs seem to be well catered for. The problem again lies in the gap which exists between, on the one hand, the formal academic training offered by the schools and the universities, and, on the other, the practical requirements of the jobs. No where is this gap as wide as in the technical/vocational area. A secondary school graduate can, with little preparation, move straight to an office and carry out basic clerical or bookkeeping functions. With additional training, he/she would be ready to perform secretarial and ICT-related duties. However, for the tasks of electrical wiring, airconditioning and refrigeration, maintenance of electronic and mechanical equipment, even attendance at the technical and vocational schools may be considered an inadequate preparation. The reason for this is that the technical schools have concentrated on text-book solutions, and distanced themselves from the world of work. What was said earlier on about dependence on externally developed technology applies here. Unless and until the polytechnical institutions start to dismantle complicated equipment and fabricate spares, their contribution 11 to human resource development would remain minimal. As for the universities, they would need the support of the government and the private sector in aligning their academic research with the development needs of the country. We have so far focused on the pre-experience training institutions. The challenge facing the post-experience ones is equally daunting. The 1970’s witnessed the establishment of a few of them, in addition to those which had existed before and immediately after independence. For example, the Centre for Management Development (CMD), the Industrial Training Fund (ITF) and the Administrative Staff College of Nigeria (ASCON) came into being at about the same time (1972/73). NIPSS was established in 1978. I understand that plans for the establishment of a new Civil Service College are at advanced stage, although I am yet to come across a convincing argument for this latest proposal. Prior to the establishment of these institutions (in fact, as far back as 1956) an Institute of Administration had been set up in Zaria to organize training programmes for senior and intermediate level personnel of government and the native authorities in the North. When the universities of Ife, Lagos and Nigeria came into being in 1962 they too set up their own institutes or schools of administration. The first major problem then is that of ensuring that the postexperience institutions’ activities are coordinated and that unnecessary overlapping or duplication of effort is avoided. The second problem is how to find the resources which the institutions undoubtedly require to fulfill their mandates. Then, there is the question of how to ensure the relevance of their activities, particularly during this period of economic emergency. Employment Policy and Conditions The third factor influencing the performance of the human resource is the employment policy, and particularly, the impact of the policy on employment conditions, and on morale and motivation of the employees. At an AAPAM Roundtable which took place in Kampala, Uganda in November 1988, Professor Gelase Mutahabe (the AAPAM Secretary-General) and my humble self argued that a possible explanation for the massive brain-drain in many African countries was the demotivating employment policies and practices. The assumption by the employer that the stock of human resources is limitless has led to the total disregard of the most elementary principle of motivation. The on-going socioeconomic crisis has worsened the situation by throwing many able-bodied persons out of their jobs. It goes without saying that an employment policy which is founded on the assumption that the supply of labour exceeds demand would not 12 seek out the best brains or make a serious effort to develop the employees’ productive capacity. Management Environment The management environment may reinforce the negative tendencies in the employment policy. In the 1970s, a number of administrative review/reform commissions were established by African Governments principally to make the management environment conductive to efficient allocation of resources. At least one of them, the Ndegwa Commission (in Kenya), called attention to factors within the managerial environment that tended to hinder the productivity of human resources, viz. (a) reluctance by manager to delegate operational responsibilities, with the result that the managers neglected their policy and innovate responsibilities and focused on administrative routine (leaving subordinates with little or nothing to do); lack of communication within departments and between one department and another (resulting in duplication of effort, and lack of coordination); failure to specify targets or hold subordinates responsible for specific results areas (with the consequence that some junior officers misunderstood, or were ignorant of, the purpose of their jobs); centralization of authority at the ministry headquarters. b) (c) (d) In their own ways, the Udoji Commission (Nigeria) and the Wamalwa Commission (Swaziland) addressed the issue of the managerial environment. It was in fact in an attempt to install â€Å"results-oriented† structures in place of the hierarchical, and status-oriented ones that the Commissions recommended the introduction of accountable management systems. Unfortunately, the aspects of the review Commissions’ proposals relating to structural reform were either simply â€Å"noted† or implemented in a half-hearted manner. In some ases, recommendations which subsequently proved harmful to the health of certain subsectors (particularly public enterprises, universities and research institutes) were implemented. An illustration is the concept of unified grading and salary system (UGSS) which transferred the hierarch ical attributes of the civil service to organizations that were in need of innovative approaches to problems. Supervisory Problems 13 Weak and/or bad supervision may also have adverse effects on human resource development and utilization. For example, when a superior officer consistently fails to monitor the performance of subordinates or leaves them to their own device, laxity and indifference may set in. If s/he neglects his responsibility to train or counsel newly recruited staff, s/he cannot assist his organization in integrating the theoretical training of the staff with the practical requirements of the job. But perhaps as damaging as (if not more damaging than) non-supervision is highhanded treatment of subordinates. A supervisor who victimizes his workforce or refuses to see any redeeming side of his close associates is a serious liability to his organization. Instead of rallying the staff behind the goals of the organization, he would tend to promote discord and bitterness. This is particularly significant in Nigeria where the typical public office brings together individuals from diverse cultural settings. External environmental factor I have alluded to the influence of the environment when I referred to Nigeria’s diversity. Ethnic, religious, language, cultural, and gender differences exert influences on inter-personal and inter-group relations. It is therefore of utmost essence that the public manager be aware of how to handle and manage such differences. The projected reform of the public service should also incorporate diversity management strategies. Another important environmental issue that future reform efforts should address is that of corruption. In fact, this subject is so important to deserve separate, in-depth treatment. I am therefore attaching a copy (in page proof format) of a forthcoming article in vol. 5, no. 2 Spring 2003 issue of Public Integrity. Readers should kindly note that before returning the proof to the journal, I inserted in the final draft the Government of Nigeria’s trong reservations on a Time magazine article written by Stephen Faris on Nigerian on 17 April 2002. 4. Human Resource Development and Utilization: Short- and Medium-Term Measures The short- and medium-term measures which are likely to facilitate the judicious allocation of human resources include the streamlining of employment policies, the improvement of the management environment, and the evaluation and redefinition of the role of tr aining institutions and manpower development agencies. 14 If the country is to derive maximum benefits from its investment on human resources, it should make a serious and sustained effort to motivate all categories of personnel. Motivation includes, but is by no means limited to, financial rewards and incentives for increased productivity. Government needs, as a matter of priority, to identify productive units and assign measurable targets to them, the attainment of which should attract specified rewards or benefits. The Republic of Tanzania experimented with this idea in its customs service, and the result exceeded all expectations. The parastatal bodies with economic or quasieconomic objectives (NITEL, NEPA, Nigeria Airways, etc. ) have nothing to lose, and probably a lot to gain, from a carefully designed programme of target-setting that is closely related to a motivation package. Even in the regular civil service, we are likely to find agencies or units offering services while at the same time operating in the market place. Any market-related operations should come under the new arrangement of target-setting and motivation. Material rewards are, however, not the only tools of motivation. The senior mangers and administrators in fact look for more. They expect to be appreciated for the contributions they are making to national survival and development. If they are not considered worthy of national honours or merit awards, they at least would not like to be prematurely retired or publicly disgraced. Motivation, as far as they are concerned, means not losing sleep over when the axe is going to fall. Equally important to the effective utilization of human resources is the reform of the management environment. Anything which constitutes a barrier to efficient resource allocation (be it hierarchy, grading of posts, systems and procedures, allocation of responsibilities, supervision styles, or civil service rules and regulations) should be closely reviewed and properly streamlined. As part of the short- and medium-term measures, steps should be taken to evaluate, rationalize, and coordinate the